I'd like to pack this
And take you to the stars
We'll eat in fancy restaurants
And drive in fancy cars
We've tried our luck, we made a buck
So lean back have some fun
Oh yes my love
But first just this last one
We stood on these cliffs on a starless night
I held your hand in mine
So stand by me with all your heart
I'll need you by my side
Oh the river is cold and black
And the bottom is a long way down
Another one going underground
Why can't we cut the ropes
And let that poor fool go
Don't you go getting weak on me
Not when I need you so
Don't lose your step
Now we're almost there
Go wash your face and comb your hair
So trust me now, believe in me
Forever more your love you have pledged to me
We'll stay at home and call this day our own
Listen to a record, watch a candle burn
I'm feeling kinda drowsy
There's blood on the floor
When I'm gone you still will have
My love for evermore
Cafe Racer History
Diposting oleh
Muhamad Rahma Munigar
di
00.21
It is perhaps the most
influential motorcycle movement the world has ever seen. Born in the streets of
England in the 1950s, its culture still thrives around the globe. There will
never be another motorcycle—or rider—quite like it. And yet, most of us have
never heard of the café racer.
The café racer is both man and
machine. With its Spartan appearance and aggressive styling, the café racer is
one of the most distinctive and revered motorcycles in the world. Their impact
on the motorcycle industry includes legendary high-performance motorcycles like
Triumph’s Bonneville, Honda’s CB-750, and Kawasaki’s Z-1. Without the original
café racers tuning and designing their ordinary street bikes for power and
handling, manufacturers may never have designed the modern sportbike.
The café racer movement may have
been born in London in the 1950s, but it has developed into a subculture
encompassing a desire for speed, a love of rock and roll, and ultimately an
enduring love for a motorcycle that’s being revived worldwide.The human side of
the café racer was a perfect match for this type of motorcycle. The riders of
these machines were young, and they wanted to go fast. The goal of many of the
café racers during the 50s was the ability to hit a hundred miles an hour,
better known as “the ton.” Author and journalist Mike Seate has been following
the café racer for two decades.
“The term café racer came from
what’s actually a derisive term used to describe kids who hung out in cafés and
raced fast. They would hang out in transport cafés and wait until somebody else
came by on a fast bike and challenged them for a race, and they all rushed
outside to see who gets up the road the fastest. When they get back to the
cafés, which were often occupied by long distance truck drivers, the truck
drivers would laugh and say, ‘You’re not a real racer, you’re not Barry Sheen,
you’re just a café racer! And the kids thought, ‘Well you’re damn right I’m a
café racer!’ So they would race to the next café, and then to the next one as
fast as they could, and the name stuck; they embraced it despite the fact that
it was a derisive term,” he said.
One of the birthplaces of the
café racer was London’s Ace Café. The Ace was one of many cafés that provided a
gathering place for teenagers and their motorcycles in the 1950s and 60s. Many,
like the Busy Bee and Café Rising Sun have succumbed to the wrecking ball,
while others, such as Jack’s Hill and Squires Coffee Bar have survived, hosting
annual Ton-Up reunions each year. Avid motorcyclist Mark Wilsmore, who reopened
the Ace Café to its former glory in 1994, says that rock and roll helped spark
the subculture known as “ The Café Racing.”
“These kids over here, they have
been the generation—rock and roll generation—they went out and bought the
fastest vehicle they could afford, which over here was a motorbike. In the
States, that was a car, and you had your hot rod culture come directly out of
Elvis Presley and that lot, but over here, we had a similar sort of thing, but
all based around motorbikes because of our different income levels. And the other great attraction of cafés, and
I suspect diners in the states at that time, was the jukebox. And certainly in
this country, when rock and roll first came around in the mid-50s you could
only hear rock and roll on the jukebox. There was no radio stations playing it,
no clubs playing it, so this new music of youngsters mixed with having their
own vehicles and their own identity, um, along comes this Ton-Up boy and his
bike, the café racer, it was invariably—the racing would be from one café to
another,” he said. The hunger to make their ordinary streetbikes go faster and
resemble the machines ridden by British racing heroes like Mike Hailwood and
Geoff Duke was all part of the café racer’s character. Doing the “Ton,” or
hitting a hundred miles-an-hour, became a badge of honor—weather you made it
back…or not.
Riders from those days say
attempts at reaching the “Ton” on your average 650cc parallel twin were dodgy
affairs at best. Riders could consider themselves very, very lucky to reach it
as their engines had to be tuned well, but even the best engines could
out-perform the skinny, bias-ply tires and meager drum brakes of mid-century
design. Road surfaces were not what they are today, with everything from poor
road lighting to axle grease from cars and trucks making each corner a
potential deathtrap. Trial and plenty of error was the order of the day and the
Rockers, experimenting with countless performance modifications, came to create
motorcycles that are still respected by go-fast aficionados. Brave? Crazy?
Brilliant visionaries? Addicted to kicks? The Rockers were, and are, all of the
above, which is why the Café Racer culture still lives not only in the streets
on London, but across the globe. Enthusiasts
of all ages are once again building custom high-performance motorcycles out of
their garages, machines that continue the tradition of the café racer. Join us for Discovery HD Theater’s “Café
Racer TV” as we explore this rich history and the quest to “Do The Ton.”
^_^
This evening the atmosphere is so tense, for some reason I have never been so scared baseball, inside the room, I can not get to sleep awake, looked around the room that are red, occasionally peeking from pejaman eyes, I seemed to know if there will be approached. Ah, maybe this is just a feeling I wrote, occasionally smiled and said to myself "Sleeping yuk, Gofar", clearing diary plus a small padlock which is next to the head, kissing teddy bear, interesting quilt Kero Kero Keroppi and now it's time to sleep. Hose five minutes passed, the sound of a loud knock on the door, so loud! "TOK TOK TOK! TOK TOK TOK! ", Snapped this self open eyes, the sweat condenses on the forehead, began a rhythmic heartbeat Dubstep, woke up from the bed and peered toward the door while bebisik softly," Who the hell? Aa .. is this a ghost or a human being? "
With slow steps uncertain dragging on the floor, the courage to open the door, knock on the door louder voice and repeated, over and over and over and over again! Tersodor wrist toward the doorknob, shaking finally I pull the door handle, "BRUAKK!" Oohh, apparently looking for bu Djoko next door neighbor would borrow a thermos of ice, one of the house turned out. Fiuhh there is no aja. With that incident made me baseball mood to sleep, finally, I wear shorts and T-shirts Mambo Grifone side lines hanging in the closet and decided to go to the shop in search of food, it turns out the incident was quite draining and raised hunger.
Arriving at tavern eat close to home, it appears there was a little tension there, a grumpy mustachioed champion, pound the table shouting "I'M THE MOST AWFUL!" And the waiter was bringing food while gemeteran. Because the males took part in the situation, I was reversing direction back toward the house. At home my car heats, decided to spend the night at the residence of friends taulan. Increasingly felt late night and cold, any desirewant to continue together to listen to a song Java Jive accompany my journey. Arriving on the highway, look beautiful girl the toll gate keeper, judging by her name tag, it turns out he was named Elma Theana and somehow this lip automatically saying "Xoncenya mannnnnna?" Thrusting a toll dues money, grotesque.
With speeds ala Knight Rider Michael Knight, the car speeding on the highway, do not feel the needle car dashboard showed gasoline was dying, I stop by the gas station on the highway. When I got there I came down from the car to buy Premix or Super TT fuming annoyed "Ah this car is extravagant!", Looks a father to hear what I then walked, smiled and said: "AMPA Empa tens of thousands" with the accent Bali pointing black car, whatever that means.
Okay, time to move on. A few meters left the gas station suddenly the car engine off, distarter baseball flames, strike brothers! Then the rain was pouring down, whether there is anything with me this evening. Waited in the car while occasionally trying the starter again but to no avail, I finally gave up, leaning head on the headrest, closed his eyes while chewing crunchy Kayane cruncy and Butternut Collins I like all like the taste of pure material patents. Soon there was a knock windshield, visible figure of a woman soaking rain, I open the windshield, "What are you doing here?" Said the woman who turned out to be a former me, "The car I strike" said I, "Yauda left his car here aja , later telephone tow truck, now I anther you wrote it to your house? "asked the former. I also affirm the offer and went to his car, candy given to him, "You better deh" I whispered into her ear, and then we hugged tightly as if he did not want to be separated, in my heart said, "Cold-cold soft".
At home I waved good-hearted ex who had willingly drove up to the house, soaking wet and then I went into the house, took a towel and a bath, wash with shampoo scent of fruit while singing "Dee dee it shampoku, I shower every dee jitak "to appease hearts lara. Turns shampooing once is not enough, I also repeat wash hair with shampoo Johnson's Baby with murmuring the song composed by Dan Hill - Sometimes When We Touch, "There is a language of love mlalui your touch, and I know language of love ~". bathing all completed and it has been a little quiet heart, to be more calm again I took a bottle of powder and sow in my body by chanting the song "Loose skin powder blushes Rodeka your family Ro De Ka".
What a night, a night which was incredible. Genesis truly unexpected, this self silent, staring at the mirror a few minutes then smiled and whispered in front of the mirror "Your hair, like Anjasmara", mantra pep to sleep. Heading to bed again, lay down to its original position, turn off the lights as if light "glare MEN!" And it is time to sleep. So the ladies and gentlemen of this story has a happy ending endings. Moral message implicit in this story is, if there are people who pretended to know, say
This sentence in front of her face: "Ah Teori!"
-pergi jauh-
With slow steps uncertain dragging on the floor, the courage to open the door, knock on the door louder voice and repeated, over and over and over and over again! Tersodor wrist toward the doorknob, shaking finally I pull the door handle, "BRUAKK!" Oohh, apparently looking for bu Djoko next door neighbor would borrow a thermos of ice, one of the house turned out. Fiuhh there is no aja. With that incident made me baseball mood to sleep, finally, I wear shorts and T-shirts Mambo Grifone side lines hanging in the closet and decided to go to the shop in search of food, it turns out the incident was quite draining and raised hunger.
Arriving at tavern eat close to home, it appears there was a little tension there, a grumpy mustachioed champion, pound the table shouting "I'M THE MOST AWFUL!" And the waiter was bringing food while gemeteran. Because the males took part in the situation, I was reversing direction back toward the house. At home my car heats, decided to spend the night at the residence of friends taulan. Increasingly felt late night and cold, any desirewant to continue together to listen to a song Java Jive accompany my journey. Arriving on the highway, look beautiful girl the toll gate keeper, judging by her name tag, it turns out he was named Elma Theana and somehow this lip automatically saying "Xoncenya mannnnnna?" Thrusting a toll dues money, grotesque.
With speeds ala Knight Rider Michael Knight, the car speeding on the highway, do not feel the needle car dashboard showed gasoline was dying, I stop by the gas station on the highway. When I got there I came down from the car to buy Premix or Super TT fuming annoyed "Ah this car is extravagant!", Looks a father to hear what I then walked, smiled and said: "AMPA Empa tens of thousands" with the accent Bali pointing black car, whatever that means.
Okay, time to move on. A few meters left the gas station suddenly the car engine off, distarter baseball flames, strike brothers! Then the rain was pouring down, whether there is anything with me this evening. Waited in the car while occasionally trying the starter again but to no avail, I finally gave up, leaning head on the headrest, closed his eyes while chewing crunchy Kayane cruncy and Butternut Collins I like all like the taste of pure material patents. Soon there was a knock windshield, visible figure of a woman soaking rain, I open the windshield, "What are you doing here?" Said the woman who turned out to be a former me, "The car I strike" said I, "Yauda left his car here aja , later telephone tow truck, now I anther you wrote it to your house? "asked the former. I also affirm the offer and went to his car, candy given to him, "You better deh" I whispered into her ear, and then we hugged tightly as if he did not want to be separated, in my heart said, "Cold-cold soft".
At home I waved good-hearted ex who had willingly drove up to the house, soaking wet and then I went into the house, took a towel and a bath, wash with shampoo scent of fruit while singing "Dee dee it shampoku, I shower every dee jitak "to appease hearts lara. Turns shampooing once is not enough, I also repeat wash hair with shampoo Johnson's Baby with murmuring the song composed by Dan Hill - Sometimes When We Touch, "There is a language of love mlalui your touch, and I know language of love ~". bathing all completed and it has been a little quiet heart, to be more calm again I took a bottle of powder and sow in my body by chanting the song "Loose skin powder blushes Rodeka your family Ro De Ka".
What a night, a night which was incredible. Genesis truly unexpected, this self silent, staring at the mirror a few minutes then smiled and whispered in front of the mirror "Your hair, like Anjasmara", mantra pep to sleep. Heading to bed again, lay down to its original position, turn off the lights as if light "glare MEN!" And it is time to sleep. So the ladies and gentlemen of this story has a happy ending endings. Moral message implicit in this story is, if there are people who pretended to know, say
This sentence in front of her face: "Ah Teori!"
-pergi jauh-
Global Warming
Diposting oleh
Muhamad Rahma Munigar
di
04.03
Global warming, the
phenomenon of increasing average air temperatures near the surface of Earth
over the past one to two centuries. Climate scientists have since the mid-20th
century gathered detailed observations of various weather phenomena (such as temperatures,
precipitation, and storms) and of related influences on climate (such as ocean
currents and the atmosphere’s chemical composition). These data indicate that
Earth’s climate has changed over almost every conceivable timescale since the
beginning of geologic time and that the influence of human activities since at
least the beginning of the Industrial Revolution has been deeply woven into the
very fabric of climate change.
Giving voice to a
growing conviction of most of the scientific community, the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed in 1988 by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). In 2013
the IPCC reported that the interval between 1880 and 2012 saw an increase in
global average surface temperature of approximately 0.9 °C (1.5 °F). The
increase is closer to 1.1 °C (2.0 °F) when measured relative to the
preindustrial (i.e., 1750–1800) mean temperature.
The IPCC stated that
most of the warming observed over the second half of the 20th century could be
attributed to human activities. It predicted that by the end of the 21st
century the global mean surface temperature would increase by 0.3 to 4.8 °C
(0.5 to 8.6 °F) relative to the 1986–2005 average. The predicted rise in
temperature was based on a range of possible scenarios that accounted for
future greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation (severity reduction) measures
and on uncertainties in the model projections. Some of the main uncertainties
include the precise role of feedback processes and the impacts of industrial
pollutants known as aerosols which may offset some warming.
Many climate scientists
agree that significant societal, economic, and ecological damage would result
if global average temperatures rose by more than 2 °C (3.6 °F) in such a short
time. Such damage would include increased extinction of many plant and animal
species, shifts in patterns of agriculture, and rising sea levels. The IPCC
reported that the global average sea level rose by some 19–21 cm (7.5–8.3
inches) between 1901 and 2010 and that sea levels rose faster in the second
half of the 20th century than in the first half. It also predicted, again
depending on a wide range of scenarios, that by the end of the 21st century the
global average sea level could rise by another 26–82 cm (10.2–32.3 inches)
relative to the 1986–2005 average and that a rise of well over 1 metre (3 feet)
could not be ruled out.
The scenarios referred
to above depend mainly on future concentrations of certain trace gases, called
greenhouse gases, that have been injected into the lower atmosphere in
increasing amounts through the burning of fossil fuels for industry,
transportation, and residential uses. Modern global warming is the result of an
increase in magnitude of the so-called greenhouse effect, a warming of Earth’s
surface and lower atmosphere caused by the presence of water vapour, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, and other greenhouse gases. In 2014 the IPCC
reported that concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides in
the atmosphere surpassed those found in ice cores dating back 800,000 years. Of
all these gases, carbon dioxide is the most important, both for its role in the
greenhouse effect and for its role in the human economy. It has been estimated
that, at the beginning of the industrial age in the mid-18th century, carbon
dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere were roughly 280 parts per million
(ppm). By the middle of 2014, carbon dioxide concentrations had briefly reached
400 ppm, and, if fossil fuels continue to be burned at current rates, they are
projected to reach 560 ppm by the mid-21st century—essentially, a doubling of
carbon dioxide concentrations in 300 years.
A vigorous debate is in
progress over the extent and seriousness of rising surface temperatures, the
effects of past and future warming on human life, and the need for action to
reduce future warming and deal with its consequences. This article provides an
overview of the scientific background and public policy debate related to the
subject of global warming. It considers the causes of rising near-surface air
temperatures, the influencing factors, the process of climate research and
forecasting, the possible ecological and social impacts of rising temperatures,
and the public policy developments since the mid-20th century. For a detailed
description of Earth’s climate, its processes, and the responses of living
things to its changing nature, see climate. For additional background on how
Earth’s climate has changed throughout geologic time, see climatic variation
and change. For a full description of Earth’s gaseous envelope, within which
climate change and global warming occur, see atmosphere.
Climatic variation
since the last glaciation
Global warming is
related to the more general phenomenon of climate change, which refers to
changes in the totality of attributes that define climate. In addition to
changes in air temperature, climate change involves changes to precipitation
patterns, winds, ocean currents, and other measures of Earth’s climate.
Normally, climate change can be viewed as the combination of various natural
forces occurring over diverse timescales. Since the advent of human civilization,
climate change has involved an “anthropogenic,” or exclusively human-caused,
element, and this anthropogenic element has become more important in the
industrial period of the past two centuries. The term global warming is used
specifically to refer to any warming of near-surface air during the past two
centuries that can be traced to anthropogenic causes.
To define the concepts
of global warming and climate change properly, it is first necessary to
recognize that the climate of Earth has varied across many timescales, ranging
from an individual human life span to billions of years. This variable climate
history is typically classified in terms of “regimes” or “epochs.” For
instance, the Pleistocene glacial epoch (about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago) was
marked by substantial variations in the global extent of glaciers and ice
sheets. These variations took place on timescales of tens to hundreds of
millennia and were driven by changes in the distribution of solar radiation
across Earth’s surface. The distribution of solar radiation is known as the
insolation pattern, and it is strongly affected by the geometry of Earth’s
orbit around the Sun and by the orientation, or tilt, of Earth’s axis relative
to the direct rays of the Sun.
Worldwide, the most
recent glacial period, or ice age, culminated about 21,000 years ago in what is
often called the Last Glacial Maximum. During this time, continental ice sheets
extended well into the middle latitude regions of Europe and North America,
reaching as far south as present-day London and New York City. Global annual
mean temperature appears to have been about 4–5 °C (7–9 °F) colder than in the
mid-20th century. It is important to remember that these figures are a global
average. In fact, during the height of this last ice age, Earth’s climate was
characterized by greater cooling at higher latitudes (that is, toward the
poles) and relatively little cooling over large parts of the tropical oceans
(near the Equator). This glacial interval terminated abruptly about 11,700 years
ago and was followed by the subsequent relatively ice-free period known as the
Holocene Epoch. The modern period of Earth’s history is conventionally defined
as residing within the Holocene. However, some scientists have argued that the
Holocene Epoch terminated in the relatively recent past and that Earth
currently resides in a climatic interval that could justly be called the
Anthropocene Epoch—that is, a period during which humans have exerted a
dominant influence over climate.
Though less dramatic
than the climate changes that occurred during the Pleistocene Epoch,
significant variations in global climate have nonetheless taken place over the
course of the Holocene. During the early Holocene, roughly 9,000 years ago,
atmospheric circulation and precipitation patterns appear to have been
substantially different from those of today. For example, there is evidence for
relatively wet conditions in what is now the Sahara Desert. The change from one
climatic regime to another was caused by only modest changes in the pattern of
insolation within the Holocene interval as well as the interaction of these
patterns with large-scale climate phenomena such as monsoons and El
Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
During the middle
Holocene, some 5,000–7,000 years ago, conditions appear to have been relatively
warm—indeed, perhaps warmer than today in some parts of the world and during
certain seasons. For this reason, this interval is sometimes referred to as the
Mid-Holocene Climatic Optimum. The relative warmth of average near-surface air
temperatures at this time, however, is somewhat unclear. Changes in the pattern
of insolation favoured warmer summers at higher latitudes in the Northern
Hemisphere, but these changes also produced cooler winters in the Northern Hemisphere
and relatively cool conditions year-round in the tropics. Any overall
hemispheric or global mean temperature changes thus reflected a balance between
competing seasonal and regional changes. In fact, recent theoretical climate
model studies suggest that global mean temperatures during the middle Holocene
were probably 0.2–0.3 °C (0.4–0.5 °F) colder than average late 20th-century
conditions.
Over subsequent
millennia, conditions appear to have cooled relative to middle Holocene levels.
This period has sometimes been referred to as the “Neoglacial.” In the middle
latitudes this cooling trend was associated with intermittent periods of
advancing and retreating mountain glaciers reminiscent of (though far more
modest than) the more substantial advance and retreat of the major continental
ice sheets of the Pleistocene climate epoch.
Causes of global
warming
The greenhouse effect
The average surface
temperature of Earth is maintained by a balance of various forms of solar and
terrestrial radiation. Solar radiation is often called “shortwave” radiation
because the frequencies of the radiation are relatively high and the
wavelengths relatively short—close to the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Terrestrial radiation, on the other hand, is often
called “longwave” radiation because the frequencies are relatively low and the
wavelengths relatively long—somewhere in the infrared part of the spectrum.
Downward-moving solar energy is typically measured in watts per square metre.
The energy of the total incoming solar radiation at the top of Earth’s
atmosphere (the so-called “solar constant”) amounts roughly to 1,366 watts per
square metre annually. Adjusting for the fact that only one-half of the
planet’s surface receives solar radiation at any given time, the average
surface insolation is 342 watts per square metre annually.
The amount of solar
radiation absorbed by Earth’s surface is only a small fraction of the total
solar radiation entering the atmosphere. For every 100 units of incoming solar radiation,
roughly 30 units are reflected back to space by either clouds, the atmosphere,
or reflective regions of Earth’s surface. This reflective capacity is referred
to as Earth’s planetary albedo, and it need not remain fixed over time, since
the spatial extent and distribution of reflective formations, such as clouds
and ice cover, can change. The 70 units of solar radiation that are not
reflected may be absorbed by the atmosphere, clouds, or the surface. In the
absence of further complications, in order to maintain thermodynamic
equilibrium, Earth’s surface and atmosphere must radiate these same 70 units
back to space. Earth’s surface temperature (and that of the lower layer of the
atmosphere essentially in contact with the surface) is tied to the magnitude of
this emission of outgoing radiation according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
Earth’s energy budget
is further complicated by the greenhouse effect. Trace gases with certain
chemical properties—the so-called greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O)—absorb some of the infrared radiation
produced by Earth’s surface. Because of this absorption, some fraction of the
original 70 units does not directly escape to space. Because greenhouse gases
emit the same amount of radiation they absorb and because this radiation is
emitted equally in all directions (that is, as much downward as upward), the
net effect of absorption by greenhouse gases is to increase the total amount of
radiation emitted downward toward Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere. To
maintain equilibrium, Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere must emit more
radiation than the original 70 units. Consequently, the surface temperature
must be higher. This process is not quite the same as that which governs a true
greenhouse, but the end effect is similar. The presence of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere leads to a warming of the surface and lower part of the
atmosphere (and a cooling higher up in the atmosphere) relative to what would
be expected in the absence of greenhouse gases.
It is essential to
distinguish the “natural,” or background, greenhouse effect from the “enhanced”
greenhouse effect associated with human activity. The natural greenhouse effect
is associated with surface warming properties of natural constituents of
Earth’s atmosphere, especially water vapour, carbon dioxide, and methane. The
existence of this effect is accepted by all scientists. Indeed, in its absence,
Earth’s average temperature would be approximately 33 °C (59 °F) colder than
today, and Earth would be a frozen and likely uninhabitable planet. What has
been subject to controversy is the so-called enhanced greenhouse effect, which
is associated with increased concentrations of greenhouse gases caused by human
activity. In particular, the burning of fossil fuels raises the concentrations
of the major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and these higher
concentrations have the potential to warm the atmosphere by several degrees
Radiative forcing
In light of the
discussion above of the greenhouse effect, it is apparent that the temperature
of Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere may be modified in three ways: (1)
through a net increase in the solar radiation entering at the top of Earth’s
atmosphere, (2) through a change in the fraction of the radiation reaching the
surface, and (3) through a change in the concentration of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere. In each case the changes can be thought of in terms of
“radiative forcing.” As defined by the IPCC, radiative forcing is a measure of
the influence a given climatic factor has on the amount of downward-directed
radiant energy impinging upon Earth’s surface. Climatic factors are divided
between those caused primarily by human activity (such as greenhouse gas
emissions and aerosol emissions) and those caused by natural forces (such as
solar irradiance); then, for each factor, so-called forcing values are
calculated for the time period between 1750 and the present day. “Positive
forcing” is exerted by climatic factors that contribute to the warming of
Earth’s surface, whereas “negative forcing” is exerted by factors that cool
Earth’s surface.
On average, about 342
watts of solar radiation strike each square metre of Earth’s surface per year,
and this quantity can in turn be related to a rise or fall in Earth’s surface
temperature. Temperatures at the surface may also rise or fall through a change
in the distribution of terrestrial radiation (that is, radiation emitted by
Earth) within the atmosphere. In some cases, radiative forcing has a natural
origin, such as during explosive eruptions from volcanoes where vented gases
and ash block some portion of solar radiation from the surface. In other cases,
radiative forcing has an anthropogenic, or exclusively human, origin. For
example, anthropogenic increases in carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide
are estimated to account for 2.3 watts per square metre of positive radiative
forcing. When all values of positive and negative radiative forcing are taken
together and all interactions between climatic factors are accounted for, the
total net increase in surface radiation due to human activities since the
beginning of the Industrial Revolution is 1.6 watts per square metre.
The influences of human
activity on climate
Human activity has
influenced global surface temperatures by changing the radiative balance
governing the Earth on various timescales and at varying spatial scales. The
most profound and well-known anthropogenic influence is the elevation of
concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Humans also influence
climate by changing the concentrations of aerosols and ozone and by modifying
the land cover of Earth’s surface.
Greenhouse gases
As discussed above,
greenhouse gases warm Earth’s surface by increasing the net downward longwave
radiation reaching the surface. The relationship between atmospheric
concentration of greenhouse gases and the associated positive radiative forcing
of the surface is different for each gas. A complicated relationship exists
between the chemical properties of each greenhouse gas and the relative amount
of longwave radiation that each can absorb. What follows is a discussion of the
radiative behaviour of each major greenhouse gas
Tugas Softskill bahasa inggris bisnis 2
Diposting oleh
Muhamad Rahma Munigar
di
03.55
1. What is relative clause ! explain and find a
passage then you determine its relative clause.
Relative clause is part of the sentences (clause)
which specifies the person or thing that precedes it. The term relative clauses
with adjective clause. Mentioned adjective clause because he explains things or
people that preceded them. Mentioned relative clause because connect
(me-Relate) the thing or person is the phrase on the back. Relative clauses
begin with the preposisition who, whom, whose, which, that, with, the following
functions :
Who : describe the person as a subject
Whom : present state of the object (replace me, you,
us, him, her, them, it)
Whose : describing people as owners (replacing my,
your, our, his, her, their, its)
Which : describing things as subject or object
That : explains a good person or thing as the
subject or object
Example :
·
He is the man who works hard to
support their daily needs.
·
The woman whom you saw last
night is my sister.
·
The man, whose car is antique,
works as a lecturer.
·
Mueeza, which is very
faithful, is my cat
·
It is the car that I have dreamed for
many years ago.
2. What is
conditional sentences ! how many types of conditional sentences are there ?
make examples for each type !
Conditional
Sentence is a sentence that contains the assumption is often called a
conditional sentence where an event will be fulfilled if the condition is met.
In a sentence of conditional sentences, there are two clauses, namely: main
clause and the if clause.
The types of
conditional sentence: 3
Type I (future)
This first
type of conditional sentences refer to future events (future) so the fact or
facts of his statement is still a possibility that may happen or may not
happen. The first type of conditional pattern is as follows:
If + simple
present, future tense
if +
Simple Present, will-Future
examples :
·
If you give me money, I will help you.
·
If you help me, I will Give you money
·
If you leave your sister alone, she will
miss you.
·
If our team win the match, we will be
very happy.
·
If joni camps, he will build a campfire
Type II (present)
Sentence
type II modality is a modality for the present sentence kaliamat which is
contrary to the events occurring in the present (present). So the facts in the
present tense.b. Type II (present). Sentence type II modality is a modality for
the present sentence kaliamat which is contrary to the events occurring in the
present (present). So the facts in the present tense.
If + simple
past tense, past future tense
If +
Simple Past, main clause with Conditional I (= would + Infinitive)
examples :
·
If I were you, I would be very angry
·
If I were superman, I would fly to the
moon
·
If I married Anna, I would be very happy
·
If I were an entrepreneur, I would get money easily
·
If you followed my instruction, you
would be safe.
Type III (past)
Type III
conditional sentence is a sentence modality for the past where the sentence is
contrary to the reality that happened in the past (past). So should the fact
that in the past tense.
If + past
perfect tense, past perfect future
If +
Past Perfect, main clause with Conditional II
examples :
·
If
grandfather had been immediately taken to the hospital, he would havebeen saved.
·
I
would have sent her an invitation if I had found her address.
·
If I had
found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.
·
If berry had
Realize how hurt it was for me, He would have said sorry.
If Jono had studied
hard, he would have passed the exam.
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